Dairy Cow Feed Formulation; A Comprehensive Farmers Guide

Dairy cow feed formulation is a critical aspect of dairy farming because it directly affects the health, milk production, and profitability of the herd. Formulating a balanced and nutritious diet for dairy cows requires a combination of various feed ingredients to meet their nutritional requirements.

Dairy cows require a balanced diet that provides them with the nutrients they need to maintain their body condition, produce milk, and reproduce. The specific nutrient requirements of a dairy cow vary depending on her stage of lactation, body condition, and reproductive status. However, all dairy cows need to consume a diet that is high in energy, protein, and fiber.

Energy is the most important nutrient for dairy cows, as it is needed to produce milk. Protein is also important for milk production, as it is used to synthesize milk proteins. Fiber is important for maintaining gut health and preventing digestive problems.

Dairy cow feed rations are typically formulated using a combination of forage and concentrate feeds. Forage feeds such as hay, silage, and pasture provide cows with fiber, energy, and some protein. Concentrate feeds such as dairy meal, maize germ, and cottonseed cake provide cows with additional energy, protein, and other nutrients.

The specific proportions of forage and concentrate feeds in a dairy cow ration will vary depending on the cow’s individual needs. However, a typical ration for a lactating dairy cow might consist of 60% forage and 40% concentrate.

Current State of Milk Production in Kenya

Kenya is a major producer of milk in East Africa. In 2022, the country produced an estimated 4 billion liters of milk. However, Kenya’s milk production is still not meeting domestic demand. The country’s population is growing rapidly, and milk consumption is also increasing.

There are a number of factors that are limiting milk production in Kenya. One factor is the low productivity of dairy cows. The average milk yield per cow in Kenya is only about 6 liters per day. This is much lower than the milk yields of cows in developed countries.

Another factor limiting milk production in Kenya is the lack of access to quality feed. Many Kenyan dairy farmers rely on low-quality forage feeds, which can lead to low milk production and poor animal health.

Despite these challenges, there is potential for Kenya to increase its milk production. The government of Kenya is investing in programs to improve the productivity of dairy cows and provide farmers with access to quality feed.

Benefits Of Small Scale Dairy Farming

The benefits of small scale dairy farming include the following aspects:

• The produced milk is considered as a perfect human food. Through home consumption and sales, it contributes considerably to the health status of the people in rural areas.
• – The sold milk provides the farmer with a regular income throughout the year.
• Income from milk is more reliable than from beef. Milk sales continue during outbreaks of diseases when livestock movements are banned.
• The animals provide income through the sale of surplus heifers, and at the same time form a source of meat.
• The animals provide organic (kraal) manure, which is essential to maintain a good soil fertility at the farm.
• The animals provide other by-products, like skins for leather, etc.
• Small scale farming is an agriculture based rural development enterprise, which creates employment in the rural areas.
• Small scale farming contributes to the formation of a commercial agro-industry and creates business opportunities.
• Dairy farming requires and therefore develops discipline among farmers and their workers.
• Milk enhances the immune system of people and in that way contributes considerably to the reduction of child mortality. Moreover, it remains available during periods when common food often is in shortage.

Conditions That Favour Dairy Farming

The following conditions are required to enable a good environment for dairy farming:

• A good climate with sufficient rainfall, preferably well distributed over the year.
• A good water supply from rivers, streams, dams, boreholes, etc. Water is essential for the animals to drink and to maintain a good hygienic standard at farms.
• A nearby market for the milk within reach. Either informally direct to consumers or formally through Cooperative Societies and milk processors.
• Availability of inputs, like stock feeds and veterinary drugs.
• Access to technical information and support of a dairy extension service and to breeding facilities, like Artificial Insemination (A.I.) or bull camps.
• Access to an infrastructure with all weather roads.
• Knowledge of good crop husbandry; like maize, foddercrops and legumes.
• A cultural background with a tradition of cattle keeping and milk consumption.

Essentials of successful dairy farming

To make dairy farming a successful enterprise at the farm the following factors are essential:

• Availability of good quality feeds, fodder, water and grazing throughout the year.
• Suitable breeding animals with potential for milk production.
• Good animal husbandry practices.
• Effective disease and parasite control.
• Title deed land settlement.
• Favourable good government policy biased towards smallholder dairy farmers.

Sources of Different Nutrients and Their Functions

Animals require energy to enable them to live and produce. The only source of energy for them is the feed they eat. Animals rely in all cases directly or indirectly on plants as the origin of everything they eat. Plants contain 3 groups of organic compounds which contain energy.

These are:

• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Fats

Besides these, plants contain minerals, vitamins and water. In principle the animal body is composed of the same elements as plants. However, the composition of plants and animals is quite different. That is why animals require different types of feed which during the digestion are converted into nutrients essential for their body. These enable the animals to maintain their body and to receive sufficient energy for all their body functions. The different nutrients, their function in the animal body and their presence in some feeds are briefly discussed below.

Chemical breakdown of a feed into its components

Protein

 Proteins are composed of amino acids, which all contain Nitrogen (N). Nitrogen is not present in carbohydrates or fat. Proteins are one of the most important parts of a feed and form an essential  nutrient. It is continuously needed by animals for the development and maintenance of their body and for the production of milk, etc. Moreover, a constant supply is necessary for the animals to remain healthy.

Functions of proteins in the animal body

• Make up new tissues and muscles in the body
• Repair the loss of body tissues / healing
• Necessary for growth and development of the body
• Necessary for the production and functioning of enzymes and hormones
• Necessary to produce milk of a good quality
• Necessary during pregnancy for the development of the unborn calf
• Hair, horn, hooves and feathers are composed of protein
• Assist in providing resistance against diseases
• Milk contains casein, what forms the basis of cheese making
• Excess protein gives energy to the body

Presence in feeds

Proteins are found in the soft and green parts of plants. In particular in the leaves. When a plant grows older, it develops a strong stem and becomes less leafy. That is why an older plant contains less proteins. Most plants obtain the Nitrogen (N), which they require to form proteins, through their roots from the soil. However, one group of plants, the legumes, are able to utilize N from the air. For that reason leguminous feeds always have a relatively high protein content.

The total protein content of a feed is expressed as crude protein.

Some examples of the differences in the percentage of crude protein in some feeds:

Not all the proteins present in a feed can be utilized by an animal. Part of it will appear undigested in the faeces. The part of the crude protein that is digested by the animal is called the Digestible  Crude Protein (dcp).

Carbohydrates

 In the group of carbohydrates we can distinguish 2 groups of chemical compounds:

Soluble Carbohydrates

The soluble carbohydrates consist of starch and sugars. These nutrients can be digested directly by the animals. The animals are able to utilize them well and their digestibility is high. These form the major source

of energy for the animals. If more energy is provided than immediately needed, the surplus is stored as body fat.

Crude Fibre

This is the fibrous material in the plant. It is in particular found in the stem, where it provides structure to the plant and gives the plant its shape. Crude fibre (cf) is not easily digested by the  Animals. It consists of cellulose, hemi-cellulose and lignin. The bacteria in the rumen of the cow and other ruminants assist the animals in the digestion of these fibres.

The digestibility of fibres is low. Ruminants always require a considerable amount of crude fibre in their ration for a proper functioning of the rumen. However, a very high content of crude fibre reduces the feed intake of the animal.

Functions of carbohydrates

• A ready source of energy (necessary to maintain the body and for activities, like walking, grazing, milk production, )
• Maintain a constant body temperature
• Important to maintain the level of blood sugar
• Excess of carbohydrates are stored as reserve energy in form of body fat
• Milk sugar (lactose) gives sweetness to milk and is used by bacteria to turn milk sour
• Essential for the growth and multiplication of micro-organisms in the rumen
• Helps in the absorption of Ca (calcium) and P (phosphorus)

Presence in feeds

Soluble carbohydrates are found in particular in grains (wheat and maize), fruits (banana), tubers (cassava and potatoes) and sugarcane. Some examples are given below.

As plants grow older, they become more fibrous and less digestible.

Fats and oils

Fats are high in energy. In fact fat provides 2.5 times more energy than the same quantity of carbohydrates. In fodder fats are only found in very minor concentrations. Byproducts like cakes from the vegetable oil industry (i.e. sunflower, cottonseed and soya bean) have a relative high fat content. Some fat should be present in the ration as they form a source of some vitamins. As the animals derive most of their energy from starch and sugars, fats do not play a major role in the feeding of livestock.

Functions of fat

• Body fat is a reserve source of energy
• Makes up 20% of the animal body
• Provides essential fatty acids
• Is a source of fat soluble vitamins
• Helps in absorption of carotene
• Cow milk contains about 5 – 5 % fat

Minerals / salts

Minerals are the inorganic matter in feeds. These remain after the material is burned and therefore are often referred to as Ash. Some minerals play a critical role in the structure of tissues of the body. Examples are Calcium and Phosphorus, which are the main components of the bones and therefore are essential in the formation of the skeleton.

Functions of salt / minerals

• Help in digestion and absorption of nutrients
• Help in clotting and formation of blood
• Help in producing enzymes and hormones
• Help in maintaining a good fertility and growth
• Make about 1% of the milk solids and improve the quality of milk
• Increase the palatability of the ration

Minerals are only found in small quantities in the different feeds. If high quantities are found in fodder samples, this usually means that the fodder was contaminated with sand or soil. Too much soil in the feed reduces the feed intake of the animals. It is advisable to provide cattle with a mineral lick block, so that they have a constant and free access to salts.

Vitamins

Vitamins are necessary for animals in very small quantities. However, they are essential for different chemical reactions which take place in the body, which are in particular related to the digestion. Vitamins do not play a big role in the feeding of dairy animals. Most of them are synthesized by the bacteria in the rumen. When cows are fed green forage, usually no supplementation is required.

Functions of vitamins

• Necessary for the functioning of different body activities
• Important and essential for a good health status
• Help in growth and digestion
• Improve resistance (fighting power) against diseases
• Necessary for the growth and development of the unborn calf
• Prevent sterility in animals
• Improve milk production

Presence in feeds

Good sources of vitamins are: green fodders, hay, cereals, cakes and feed premixes

Water

All feeds contain a certain percentage of water. When all the water is removed from feeds the dry matter (dm) remains. So besides rivers, dams, boreholes, etc. also feeds are a source of ‘drinking’ water for the animals. Without water life is impossible. Animals should always have access to plenty of water to survive. But milk contains ca. 87 % water too. So when the animal is not allowed to drink sufficient water, it will not be able to produce a good quantity of milk.

An average cow requires about 30 litres water per day to maintain its body. This amount depends highly on the season and the prevailing temperatures.

For milk production the cow needs in addition 3 litres of water for each litre of milk it produces.

In general a farmer should plan with a requirement of about 40 – 80 litres of water per day for one cow, depending on season, type of fodder and feed, body weight, age and milk production. When it is impossible to give cattle permanent access to water, the animals should be watered at least 3 times per day. In that case they should be allowed to drink as much as they like.

Functions of water

• Allows mastication and swallowing
• Helps in digestion
• As a solvent it allows absorption of nutrients and excretion of waste
• Essential for cell nutrition and transportation of nutrients to different parts of the body
• Regulates the body temperature
• Maintains the flow of blood
• Maintains the correct acidity in the body
• Dilutes or reduces toxicity
• Makes food palatable and dry feed soft
• Forms about 87 % of the milk
• A loss of 20-25 % water in the body may result in death

Presence in feeds

The moisture content in some fresh and dry fodders is as follows:

Principals Of Feeding A Dairy Cow

Digestibility of feeds and feed evaluation

Not all the feed an animal eats is digested. The part what is not utilized will leave the body as faeces. The digested part of a feed can be expressed as a percentage of the total feed intake. This percentage is called the digestibility coefficient. Depending on the kind of feed the digestibility may vary considerable. Some products like young grass and green fodders, which have a low crude fibre content, are very easily digested. Other products like overgrown fodders, straw and stover are very fibrous and have a very low digestibility coefficient.

The feeding value of a feed is mainly determined by its energy and protein content. Several feed evaluation systems take these 2 elements into consideration. In tropical countries most commonly the Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN) system is used for ruminants. The TDN considers the part of all the energy present in a feed, what can be digested by the animal. The protein content is expressed as Digestible Crude Protein (dcp). This is the part of the total protein content of the feed, which the animal is able to digest and to utilize.

Both the TDN and dcp values are usually expressed as grams per kg. When rations for the animals are being calculated, we want to know the feeding value of the feed as it is. So we express the TDN and dcp values as grams per kg feed.

In case we want to compare the feeding value of different feeds, we are interested in the quality of the dry matter. In that case we express TDN and dcp in grams per kg dry matter (dm).

Dry matter intake

To match the feeding value in a certain quantity of feed with the total requirement of an animal, we should have an indication how much the animal is able to eat. This quantity is expressed in dry matter (dm). The reason is that the quantity of water in a feed in fact can be considered as ‘drinking’ water for the animal. It does not contribute to the feeding value and to the intake of a particular feed.

The dry matter intake of an animal depends on a number of factors:

• the cow (age, weight, milk production, pregnancy, breed);
• the feed (quality, digestibility);
• the feed supply (grazing system, frequency of feeding, variation in the ration, water availability);
• the environment (temperature, rain).

When estimating the dm intake of an animal it is assumed that it receives an unlimited supply of roughage. This means that the animal has permanent access to the fodder. After eating as much as it likes, there should remain an edible left-over of about 10 % of the supplied forage.

It has been established that under those conditions a ruminant will eat between 1.5 % and 2.5 % of its bodyweight in form of roughage. The actual percentage depends heavily on the quality of the fodder which is supplied. When an animal receives poor quality roughage its intake is reduced. And since the fodder it eats contains only little nutrients, the total intake of nutrients becomes extra low.

Therefore good quality roughage is the basis for a high milk production. In general we can say that a cow with a bodyweight of 450 kg is able to eat approximately between 7 – 11 kg dm roughage per day. However, it should be realized that in order to achieve this amount, the intake of young, fresh grass might easily reach over 60 kg per day. In case the farmer cuts and carries the grass, he should supply about 70 kg fresh material per cow per day to enable the animal to get fully satisfied.

On average we can work in our calculations with a dm intake out of roughage of 2 % of the bodyweight.

The total dm intake, including concentrates, of a normal producing dairy cow can be considered in the range of 8 – 13 kg dm per day. However, a well developed, high producing cow, which is supplied with good quality fodder and concentrates might even take in up to 18 kg dm per day.

Fodder and Concentrates

The difference between roughages or fodder and concentrates is highly related to their feeding value. In general roughages have a rather low feeding value and a high crude fibre percentage. Concentrates have a high feeding value and are low in fibre. The main reason is that in case of fodder the complete plant is used as a feed, including the leaves and the stem. In concentrates only those parts of the plants are used which contain a higher concentration of nutrients, like starch and sugar. These are found particularly in seeds, tubers and sometimes in roots. Also byproducts of seeds are concentrated feeds. In conclusion we can say that:

Roughages are characterized by a higher fibre content, are bulky and generally contain the vegetative portion of a plant or tree. The digestible energy content is low and depends highly on the variety of the fodder and the maturity stage at harvesting. For that reason a high variation in feeding value can be observed.

Concentrates are high quality, low fibre feeds. To this group belong cereal grains and their milling byproducts (bran), byproducts of oilseeds (cake), tubers, roots and animal products. Concentrates are high in digestible energy and protein.

Common Animal Feeds Available And Their Feeding Value

 The following feeds usually can be found on or in the vicinity of smallholder farms and thus are available to include in the ration of the animals. For most of them an indication of their feeding value in TDN and dcp is given as well. Both TDN and dcp are expressed in grams per kg feed.

Ration Formulation For Dairy Cows

Feed requirements

An adult cow, which is not producing still needs nutrients to survive. These nutrients are required for vital body functions, like respiration, blood circulation, maintaining the body temperature, etc. and also for movement. The nutrients needed for this purpose are called the maintenance requirement of the cow. If a cow receives less than its maintenance requirement, it reduces its reserves of body fat and it starts to loose weight.

Additional nutrients are required on top of the maintenance level to enable a cow to produce. This refers mainly to milk production, but it involves reproduction, fattening and growth as well. These extra nutrients make up the production requirement of the cow.

Obviously the maintenance requirement of an animal is related to its bodyweight. It has been established that a cow with a bodyweight of 450 kg, which walks during grazing about 5 km per day, has a maintenance requirement of 3400 gramTDN and 275 gram dcp per day.

 In relation to milk the production requirement depends strongly on the  fat-percentage in the milk. It has been concluded that a cow producing milk with 4 % fat has a

production requirement of 330 gm TDN and 51 gm dcp per kg milk.

 In the Table above, it is indicated that 1 kg dairy meal contains approx. 648 gm TDN and 108 gm dcp. That is more or less twice the production requirement for 1 kg milk.

As a rule of thumb we may thus conclude that a cow is able to produce:

2 kg milk out of 1 kg dairy meal or equivalent concentrate mixture.

Daily fodder rations

We can use the following presumptions as a first step towards the calculation of daily rations for cows. It is assumed that the animal has an unlimited access to the roughage and eats as much as it likes. In case of a cut-and-carry system, this means that about 10% of the supplied fodder remains in the feed-trough as a leftover. Calculations show the following indications of the quantity of milk a cow of approx. 450 kg bodyweight can produce from some common fodder rations, which are supplied unlimited.

Estimates of the maximum quantity of milk which a cow of 450 kg is able to produce on different fodder rations.

The Table shows that, except for poor quality natural grass, an animal is able to maintain its body on all fodder rations. Only in case an animal is supplied with overgrown, dry natural grass, it will start to loose weight in order to survive. For that reason it is advisable to add molasses to the grass or use a licking wheel with molasses to provide some extra energy to the animal.

The Table makes clear as well that very fibrous fodders, without any supplementation, do not allow the production of milk at all. In most cases such fodders are the only roughage available during the dry season. This means that normally all the milk produced in the dry season has to be provided for by concentrates.

We have seen that, once her maintenance requirement is met, a cow is able to produce 2 kg milk out of 1 kg of good quality dairy meal. In other words in the dry season to maintain a production of 4 kg milk per day 2 kg dairy meal has to be supplied, 10 kg of milk requires 5 kg dairy meal, etc.

Finally, the Table shows that the highest quantity of milk a cow can produce out of roughage is around 10 kg milk per day under tropical conditions.

With these indications it is interesting to know how much concentrates have to be added to reach a certain milk production.

Of course much more detailed ration calculations can be carried out for each cow based on the different feeding values and the feed requirements discussed before. But always remember that all figures and data used are estimates of the real situation. The results of all the calculations are just guidelines. However, if properly used these are indispensable to feed dairy animals properly and so to enable economic farming.

Qualities of an ideal dairy cow ration

• Provides adequate amount of different, mixed nutrients and is appetizing
• Is palatable and good digestible
• Has a good effect on health
• Contains a variety of feed ingredients
• Is bulky and includes sufficient fodder
• Includes preferably plenty of succulent green fodder
• Is properly balanced and contains adequate energy, protein, minerals and vitamins
• Is economical to feed
• Is nontoxic (not too old and stored in a damp place)
• Prevents undesirable flavor in milk
• Is free of undesirable weeds, dust, dung and urine

Some principles of rationing / feeding dairy animals

• Be kind and liberal in feeding the cows
• Maintain continuity in Avoid sudden changes in the ration. If necessary change as gradual as possible
• Feed twice daily at 12 hours interval
• Provide green fodder and/or silage throughout the year but definitely in the dry season
• A good palatability increases the intake and digestibility of the feed. The palatability can be improved by adding some molasses, maize bran or salt. Also by chaffing, soaking or grinding the feed
• Provide a laxative ration
• Provide a bulky ration (roughage)
• Feed individually for good results
• Silage should be fed after milking to avoid the milk to smell after it
• Excessive legume feeding should be avoided on an empty stomach to avoid bloat
• Feeding concentrate (dairy feed mixture) during milking causes a stimulation of the milk letdown
• Water should be present throughout or be provided at least three times a day